Introduction to the Chapter

Innovation is the process of creating something new or improving on an existing product or service. Oftentimes it involves the creation and development of new ideas, new services, new processes, or technology that address a challenge or need.

Innovation has taken place and has been a part of our fabric since the beginning of time. It can take the form of:

• Technological innovations: a process of improving the technology used to develop or improve existing products.
• Product innovations: modifying products to meet the needs, challenges, and demands of today’s customers.
• Business model innovations: identifying new ways to organize and operate a business.
• Social innovation: developing and innovating new and improved solutions to evolving social issues such as healthcare, education, and poverty.
• Process innovations: improving the methods used to deliver services or produce goods for customers.

Learning Outcomes

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Define innovation.
2. Describe techniques for generating innovative ideas.
3. Explain the differences between radical innovation and incremental innovation.
4. Summarize the history of notable innovation over the past century.
5. Describe the correct sequence of Innovative Project Development.
6. Explain the Desirability, Viability, and Feasibility Framework.

Key Terms

The following important terms will be used in this chapter:

• Innovation: Innovation is the process of creating, developing, and implementing new ideas, methods, or products that result in significant positive change. It involves originality, practicality, and impact, and requires a willingness to take risks and embrace change. You can innovate in the creation or adaptation.
• Iterative: The iterative process involves refining and improving a product, process, or idea through repeated cycles of testing and feedback. It is a cyclical approach where each iteration builds upon the previous one to enhance the final outcome.
• Collaboration: Collaboration is the act of working with others to achieve shared goals. It involves learning from and engaging with others to solve problems, develop products, and create new knowledge. Collaboration is a key competency in educational, personal, and workplace settings.
• Incremental innovation: Incremental innovation refers to the continuous and gradual improvement of existing products, services, or processes. It focuses on making small, incremental changes that enhance performance or efficiency without altering the core function.
• Radical innovation: Radical innovation involves creating fundamentally new products, services, or processes that significantly alter existing markets or create entirely new ones. It often requires a departure from existing practices and can lead to transformative changes in an industry.

Section 1: Innovative Pie in the Sky

Oftentimes when organizations begin the innovation process, they launch with pie in the sky ideas. By this, they brainstorm what appears to be the most ridiculous, far-reaching, and out-of-the-box ideas. During this process, there are no boundaries or limitations. With this mindset, all participants are removing preconceived limitations and allowing innovation to flow.

This innovative boundary-free stage is essential as it allows for free-flowing ideas to percolate without self-imposed limitations. This process encourages individuals to reframe obstacles as opportunities and visualize solutions that may seem far-fetched or even impractical. By giving yourself (colleagues or peers) permission to dream big and through the lens that no idea is too wild: often leads to the best ultimate solution and becomes a driver of innovation.

[figure number=Image 2.1 size=300 filename=IMG_2.1.jpg]

Innovation According to Who?

If we were to ask you if you consider yourself creative or innovative; many of you would say “no.” The reality is, we are all innovative. If you think of and visualize innovation as a spectrum: you land somewhere.

I’m Not Innovative

You might look at a coffee maker and say it is just a coffee maker; how can I innovate on something that already works and has a designated function? Well, what if we replaced the mechanical switch on it with one that shows actual movement (think a wall light switch or a lamp)? Then we could connect a plug that worked with Alexa, and in the morning, you could ask Alexa to turn on the coffee. Then when you got out of bed: coffee would be waiting for you.

Flipping My Lens

This is not a catchphrase, but rather one to challenge you to think differently, a little wild, and certainly, out of the box. Reflect on these questions for a moment:

1. What if every person had to adopt a homeless person for life?
2. What would the impact be?
3. What would change?
4. What if we had eyes in the back of our heads?
5. How do we wear baseball hats?
6. What changes?
7. What if there were a pill that would eliminate bigotry in its current form?
8. What would the world be like?
9. Would it work?
10. What if we lived forever?
11. What would the impact be?
12. What would happen to religion? Crime??

These questions prompted innovation because, without a doubt, you were figuring out how to wear a baseball hat or if you were required to take the pill. Innovation often begins with the weird and wild and serves as a jumping-off point, if you will. Innovation is brainstorming in action.

Rewiring You, Me, and Us

Yes And

Maybe it is a habit, but often, we are given a choice that results in selecting one item over the other. What if we shifted our response a bit: yes and. Does every decision need to end in a single choice or solution? The “yes and” concept is often used in improv to continue the conversation, watching how one another responds, and the storyline that develops. In our personal lives, saying yes may have a more significant impact than an automatic no, and in business, yes and is a means of brainstorming and compromise to identify the most appropriate solution.

Why Not?

Like its cousin “yes and,” why not stretches our boundaries and helps to prevent an automatic NO. Heinz embraced the “Why Not” concept in 2002 by flipping the ketchup bottle. By doing this, they broke a 170-year-old tradition. Really, why not?

[figure number=Figure 2.1 caption=Heinz Flips filename=Fig_2.1.jpg]

This bold move transformed condiments, lotions, shampoos, and endless household items.

Now, identify an issue or situation in your personal or professional life that you could say, “Why Not”?

• What would be the impact?
• The unintended consequences?
• The worst-case scenario?
• What would be the benefits?
• What are the possibilities?

Types of Innovation

Innovation comes in all forms and extremes. Innovators understand there is a continuum.

Radical: Is It Luggage or a Phone?

If you know anyone or you yourself grew up in the 1960s or 1970s, you were used to telephones mounted on the wall with a long stretched-out cord, which was your means of communicating if not in-person. Some tell stories of their childhood using a telephone mounted on the kitchen wall, stretching it around the corner and down the hall so they would have privacy on their call.

Below picture A represents one of the earliest phones called a “bag phone.” The battery was just a little smaller than the carrying case. Picture B is an illustration of Martin Cooper, a researcher, and executive for Motorola. He made the first prototypes and placed the first mobile phone call in 1973.

[figure number=Figure 2.2 caption=Bag Phone and Martin Cooper, Motorola Executive and Researcher filename=Fig_2.2.png]

The invention of the phone that was mounted in one’s car, a phone carried in a bag, or a phone that was approximately 10 high and 3 deep is considered radical innovation and, most undoubtedly, disruptive.

Incremental: Camping Out for the Next Best Thing

Innovation not considered on a grand scale is referred to as incremental change. An example is the iPhone. The first version was released in 2007, and while cell phones were already presented as radical: this was Apple’s entre’ into cellular technology.

[figure number=Figure 2.3 caption=Show Stopping in 2007 size=400 filename=Fig_2.3.jpg]

Since the introduction of the iPhone, Apple has released 38 versions. Apple has been referred to a cult-like community, and the loyalty customers show is unrelenting. When the iPhone X was due to be released, news stories broke out as people were camping outside of the Apple store to be one of the first to purchase the new iteration of the classic iPhone.

Incremental innovation is an adjustment, adaptation, and iterative change to an existing product or service. Incremental innovations do not disrupt markets; rather they enhance a product or service in existence.

Section 2: Innovation Through the Years

When reflecting on innovation, many individuals focus merely on inventions. Inventions are the development of actual products while innovation is broader. Innovation focuses on ways of doing things to improve overall processes. As such, innovation has occurred throughout mankind.

Revolutionary

People have always discovered innovative approaches in order to improve workflow. Some of these innovations include inventions while others specifically focused on improving processes. For example, the agricultural revolution provides examples of how farmers became more innovative in harvesting land, using machinery to farm, and developing crop-rotation systems to maximize overall production. The agricultural revolution highlights innovation through process improvements. In comparison, the industrial revolution involved some process innovations while heavily highlighting innovation through products.

Industrial Age

The industrial revolution was a time period in which the development of various machinery increased the speed in which people were able to produce goods and complete work. The cotton gin is an example of machinery that improved innovation during the industrial revolution. The cotton gin separated cotton fibers from the cotton seeds, which eliminated the need for people to complete this process manually. While smaller devices and techniques were invented prior to the cotton gin, the cotton gin reduced consistent human involvement and revolutionized the way in which work was done.

The introduction of more machinery into society led to the next phase of the industrial revolution, which was highlighted by mass production of steel. Mass production of steel allowed for development of infrastructure and improvements in the transportation of people and goods. This time period saw the development of bridges, railways, and steel boats. These developments provided opportunities for global trade.

[figure number=Figure 2.4 caption=Modern Steel Factory and Railway filename=Fig_2.4.jpg]

The later phase of the industrial revolution was marked by the invention of the automobile. The automobile not only provided people with more freedom and flexibility with travel, but also provided increased work opportunities in manufacturing and fueled the demand for continued improvements to infrastructure. The introduction of the automobile is an example of how an innovation through an invention can impact multiple facets of human life.

Post WWII

The period following World War II was marked by a surge in technological and industrial innovation. The war had accelerated advancements in various fields, including radar, nuclear technology, and medicine. After the war, these technologies were adapted for civilian use, leading to significant improvements in living standards and economic growth. The post-war era saw the rise of consumer electronics, the expansion of the automobile industry, and the beginnings of the digital revolution. This wave of innovation was driven by the need to rebuild economies and improve quality of life, setting the stage for the rapid technological advancements of the late 20th century.

Example: The development of the microwave oven is a notable post-WWII innovation. The technology behind microwaves was initially developed for radar systems during the war. After the war, Percy Spencer, an engineer at Raytheon, discovered that microwaves could heat food quickly and efficiently. This led to the creation of the first commercial microwave oven in 1947, revolutionizing cooking and food preparation worldwide.

Modern Day

Following the Industrial Revolution, the introduction of the transistor moved innovation into an era of electronics. The transistor supported the development of electronics as small as the vacuum cleaner to electronics as large as the first computers. All of these innovations changed the way work was completed. Improvements to these innovations have continued over the years and moved society into the digital age.

The digital age is highlighted by the introduction of the internet and continuous improvement with various technologies. Personal laptops, cellular phones, and online apps have not only changed the way in which work is completed but also how businesses can service customers. Companies such as Amazon now leverage technology to receive orders from companies and have introduced innovative approaches on delivering products. The improvements in the approaches to innovation are evident. While many approaches to innovation in earlier centuries focused on inventions to improve workflow, there are now more significant opportunities to innovate through product offerings and customer experience. Doblin’s framework for approaches to innovation outlines 10 approaches. The approaches summarize varying degrees of innovation. Figure 2.5 shows Doblin’s 10 approaches to innovation.

[figure number=Figure 2.5 caption=Doblin’s Framework for Approaches to Innovation size=400 filename=Fig_2.5.jpg]

Section 3: Developing Your Innovation Skills

You may have started reading this textbook thinking: I’m not innovative; how am I ever going to get through this class, assignment, or class? Your worries are over! Here we offer ideas and suggestions to help increase your innovative mindset, grow your innovative potential, and permission to unleash your innovative self:

1. Begin by reading and learning about innovation
2. Read books and articles about innovation, creativity, and design thinking.
3. Learn from talking to and interviewing successful innovators and thought leaders in the field.
4. Check your local town or city for innovation communities where you might gain access to “like-minded” people who are willing to share their experiences, insights, successes, and failures.
5. Practice, practice, practice! Innovation takes practice. Start by walking through a typical day in the life of you and identify something that you can innovate. Experiment with your ideas, and be sure to stay outside of the proverbial box.
6. Embrace and welcome failure. Great innovators will tell you they learn the most from failure because it offers the opportunity to learn and iterate.
7. Collaborate and brainstorm. The process of collaboration and brainstorming sparks new and innovative ideas.
8. Ask for and solicit feedback. As an innovator, you may overlook the obvious, and feedback from others provides new ideas and fuel for continued innovation.
9. Remain more curious than certain!

Innovative Project Development

Crafting and Structuring a Groundbreaking Initiative

Creating and mapping out a groundbreaking initiative involves crucial phases that match the learning goals of grasping innovation, sparking ideas, and evaluating practicality. This approach ensures projects are not just inventive but also workable and influential.

Spotting the Issue or Prospect

The initial phase in innovative project growth is clearly pinpointing the issue you aim to tackle or the prospect you want to explore. This means doing thorough research to grasp the current scene, find gaps or inefficiencies, and gather stakeholder insights. By zeroing in on a well-defined problem, you can ensure your innovation addresses a real need and can make a big difference.

Sparking and Polishing Ideas

After pinpointing the issue, the next step is to develop a wide array of ideas. Methods like brainstorming sessions, mind mapping, and design thinking workshops can be used to boost creative thinking and teamwork. It is key to think about both big changes and small tweaks during this stage. Big changes can lead to major breakthroughs, while small tweaks can improve existing processes or products. After coming up with ideas, refine them by checking if they’re doable, how much impact they might have, and if they fit with your main goals.

Building Models and Testing

Making prototypes is vital to the innovation process. It lets you create real versions of your ideas, which you can test and improve. This back-and-forth process helps spot potential flaws and areas to enhance early on, reducing the risk of failure. Testing prototypes with actual users gives valuable feedback and insights, allowing you to make smart adjustments and improvements.

Checking Feasibility and Impact

Before fully committing to a project, it is crucial to check if it is doable and what impact it might have. This means looking at technical needs, available resources, and money matters. A SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis can help judge if the project is viable. Also, consider how the innovation might affect society, the economy, and the environment. A thorough check ensures the project is innovative, sustainable, and aligned with organizational aims.

Putting Into Action and Growing

Once the project is deemed doable, the next step is to implement it. Create a detailed project plan outlining the steps, timelines, and resources needed for successful execution. During this phase, stay flexible to adapt to unexpected challenges and keep gathering feedback to refine the innovation. If the project proves successful, think about ways to grow it to reach more people or markets.

Reviewing and Always Improving

After implementing the project, review how well it met the initial goals. This means measuring key performance indicators, getting stakeholder feedback, and analyzing the overall impact. Use these insights to find areas for improvement and guide future innovation efforts. Continuously improving is a key part of innovative project development, ensuring that innovations stay relevant and effective over time.

Evaluating Viability

We need to look at several factors to check if an innovation can work. These help us see if the idea is practical, can last, and might succeed. Here are some key things to consider:

Can We Make It?

This means checking if we have or can obtain the technology needed for the innovation. We also need to consider the skills, tools, and setup required to bring the idea to life within our limits.

Will People Want It?

Here, we examine whether there is a market for our innovation. We need to understand the size of the market, what customers need, who our competitors are, and what might prevent us from entering it. Knowing these things helps us determine whether there are enough potential customers.

Can We Afford It?

This involves estimating the cost of developing, starting, and growing the innovation. We also need to determine whether it will earn enough money to cover costs and earn a profit. Finally, we need to consider where we will get the money to support the innovation.

Can Our Team Handle It?

We need to check if our organization has the right skills, culture, and structure to support innovation. This includes determining whether the innovation fits with our overall goals and whether our team is ready to adopt new ways of doing things.

Is It Legal?

This means ensuring that the innovation complies with all relevant laws, rules, and industry standards. We also need to understand the legal environment and any potential legal issues that could affect how we develop and use the innovation.

Does It Fit Culturally?

We need to see if the innovation matches the cultural values and practices of our target market or organization. This is important to ensure users and stakeholders accept and embrace the innovation.

By examining these factors, organizations can thoroughly assess whether a new innovation is practical and likely to succeed. This approach helps spot potential risks and challenges early on, allowing for better decision-making and planning.

The desirability, viability, and feasibility (DVF) framework is a strategic tool used to evaluate the potential success of a product or innovation by examining three critical aspects: desirability, feasibility, and viability. This framework helps teams ensure that their innovations are not only technically possible and financially sound but also meet the needs and wants of the target audience.

[figure number=Image 2.3 filename=IMG_2.3.png]

Desirability focuses on whether the product or service is something that people want or need. It involves understanding the target audience’s preferences, behaviors, and pain points to ensure that the innovation appeals to them and addresses their needs. Assessing desirability involves user research, empathy mapping, and customer feedback to validate that the product will resonate with its intended users.

Feasibility examines whether the product can be developed with the available technology and resources. It involves evaluating the technical and operational capabilities required to create and deliver the product. This includes assessing whether the necessary skills, technology, and infrastructure are in place to bring the innovation to life. Feasibility ensures that the innovation is practically achievable within the given constraints.

Viability considers the financial and business aspects of the innovation. It involves analyzing whether the product can be profitable and sustainable in the long term. This includes evaluating the cost structure, revenue potential, market dynamics, and competitive landscape to ensure that the innovation makes economic sense for the business. Viability ensures that the innovation aligns with the organization’s strategic goals and can generate value over time.

By balancing these three elements, the DVF framework helps teams prioritize ideas and decide which innovations to pursue. It ensures that the product not only fulfills a market need but is also technically feasible and financially viable, increasing the likelihood of its success in the market.

You might be wondering what this looks like—here are some real-world examples of successful applications of the DVF framework:

Airbnb: Airbnb is a prime example of a company that successfully applied the DVF framework. Initially, the founders focused on desirability by identifying a market need for affordable and unique lodging options. They tested the concept by renting out air mattresses in their apartment, validating the desirability with early adopters. As they scaled, they ensured feasibility by building a robust platform that could handle growing users and listings. Finally, they achieved viability by developing a sustainable business model that generates revenue through service fees, ensuring long-term profitability.

Tesla: Tesla’s electric vehicles exemplify the DVF framework in action. Desirability was achieved by creating high-performance electric cars that appeal to environmentally conscious consumers and car enthusiasts alike. Tesla ensured feasibility by investing in battery technology and building a network of supercharger stations to support their vehicles. Viability was addressed through a direct-to-consumer sales model and continuous innovation, which have helped Tesla maintain a competitive edge and achieve profitability.

Apple iPhone: The development of the iPhone is another successful application of the DVF framework. Apple focused on desirability by designing a smartphone with an intuitive user interface and a sleek design that appealed to consumers. They ensured feasibility by leveraging existing technologies and their expertise in hardware and software integration. Viability was achieved through a strong brand, strategic partnerships with carriers, and a business model that included app sales and services, contributing to Apple’s long-term success.

These examples illustrate how the DVF framework can guide companies in developing innovative products that are not only desirable to consumers but also technically feasible and financially viable, leading to sustained success in the market.

Case Study: The Dilemma of Innovation in the Hospitality Industry: The Case of Marriott International

Introduction

You are the Chief Innovation Officer at Marriott International, a global leader in the hospitality industry. Known for its commitment to exceptional guest experiences, Marriott has consistently been at the forefront of adopting new technologies and innovative practices. However, the hospitality industry is undergoing rapid transformation. Emerging technologies, changing consumer preferences, and the rise of alternative accommodation platforms like Airbnb are reshaping the landscape.

Founding Story

The Challenge

In recent years, Marriott has been exploring ways to integrate cutting-edge technology to enhance guest experiences and streamline operations. The company has experimented with various innovations, such as mobile check-in, keyless room entry, and personalized guest services using artificial intelligence. While these initiatives have shown promise, the company is now facing a critical decision that could significantly impact its future.

As the Chief Innovation Officer, you are tasked with evaluating the feasibility and potential impact of a new innovation: a fully automated hotel experience. This concept involves using advanced robotics, artificial intelligence, and the Internet of Things (IoT) to automate nearly every aspect of hotel operations, from check-in and concierge services to housekeeping and room service.

The Decision

The board of directors is divided. Some members are enthusiastic about the potential cost savings and efficiency gains of a fully automated hotel. They argue that automation could enhance guest satisfaction by providing faster, more personalized service while reducing labor costs. Others, however, are concerned about the potential loss of the human touch that has been a hallmark of Marriott’s brand. They worry that guests may feel alienated in a hotel run by machines, leading to a decline in customer loyalty.

You must make a recommendation to the board. Your decision will need to consider several factors:

• Feasibility: Can the necessary technology be implemented effectively and within budget? What are the potential technical challenges and risks?
• Impact on guest experience: How will automation affect the overall guest experience? Will it enhance or detract from the personalized service that guests expect?
• Brand identity: How will this innovation align with Marriott’s brand values and reputation for hospitality?
• Competitive advantage: How will this move position Marriott in relation to its competitors, both traditional hotels and alternative accommodation providers?
• Ethical and social implications: What are the potential impacts on employment and the local communities where Marriott operates?

As you prepare your recommendation, consider the following: Should Marriott fully embrace automation and become a pioneer in the automated hotel experience, or should it focus on enhancing human-centric services with technology as a supporting tool? The decision you make could redefine the future of hospitality at Marriott.

For additional information, below are a couple articles:

Marriott digital transformation strategies overview:

Global Data. “Marriott International Inc – Digital Transformation Strategies.” Market Research Reports & Consulting | GlobalData UK Ltd., 17 June 2022, www.globaldata.com/store/report/marriott-international-enterprise-tech-analysis/.

Marriott International is betting big on customer-facing technology:

“Marriott’s Innovative Hotel Customer Experience Strategy.” Digital Travel US 2021, digitaltravel.wbresearch.com/blog/marriott-international-betting-customer-facing-technology-strategy-research.

A Nutshell Summary

You have been exposed to innovation and gained an understanding of its history from steel to the current day, and have been asked to stretch your mind and innovate. As discussed in Chapter 1, you must give yourself permission to create and innovate.

Probing Questions

1. Why can the way we think about something be a part of the problem?
2. What is the difference between will and imagination?
3. Why are failures sometimes possibilities?

Introduction to the Reading

Innovation is a critical driver of progress and competitive advantage in today’s rapidly changing business environment. Innovation involves practically applying new ideas to create value through new products, services, processes, or business models. Understanding the components and fundamental elements of innovation is essential for organizations that seek to foster and maintain a culture of creativity and maintain their market edge.

Innovation is the process of introducing new ideas, methods, products, services, or solutions that create significant positive impacts and value. It involves transforming creative concepts into tangible outcomes that enhance efficiency and effectiveness or address unmet needs. Innovation is not confined to technological advancements; it also includes novel approaches to problem-solving, processes, organizational practices, and business model innovations. It is driven by a combination of factors such as curiosity, creativity, and the desire for improvement. Innovation requires a mindset that embraces change, fosters ideation, and encourages experimentation. It can occur in various contexts, including business, science, technology, social sectors, and public services.

The innovation management process comprises several key components, each playing a vital role in guiding ideas from concept to reality. These components include strategy identification, technology scouting, trend management, idea generation, idea evaluation and selection, concept development, implementation and commercialization, and innovation portfolio management. Together, they create a cohesive framework that helps organizations systematically explore and exploit new opportunities. Research conducted by Babson College professors Jay Rao and Joseph Weintraub identified six essential building blocks for an innovative culture: resources, processes, values, behavior, climate, and success. Resources encompass funding, tools, and programs necessary for innovation. Processes involve outlining steps to streamline decisions and simplify projects. Values shape the organizational mindset toward innovation. Behavior reflects how individuals and teams approach innovation. Climate refers to the work environment that fosters creative thinking. Success entails how innovation outcomes are measured and recognized.

The innovation process typically proceeds through several stages, starting with opportunity identification via market research, customer insights, or trend analysis. This is followed by idea generation, during which creative solutions are proposed. The subsequent stages involve idea refinement, evaluation, and prioritization to select the most promising concepts. Development and prototyping then convert selected ideas into tangible models or minimum viable products. Testing and iteration facilitate gathering feedback and making necessary adjustments. Finally, implementation and scaling encompass bringing the innovation to market or integrating it into existing operations. This structured approach enables organizations to manage innovation systematically and enhance the chances of success.

References

Adibi IP Group (2024). The most prolific inventors that changed humanity. https://adibiip.com/the-most-prolific-inventors-that-changed-humanity/.

Burton, K.D. The National WWII Museum. New Orleans. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/scientific-and-technological-advances-world-war-ii.

Cristache, A. (2021). The value of balancing desirability, feasibility, and viability. Crowd Favorite. https://crowdfavorite.com/the-value-of-balancing-desirability-feasibility-and-viability/.

Meyer, D. J.-U. (n.d.). Incremental Innovation. Innolytics. https://innolytics.net/incremental-innovation/

Rajasekar, K. (2024). How to use the DVF framework. https://cyces.co/blog/how-to-use-the-dvf-framework.

Image Credits

IMG 2.1: Copyright © 2018 Depositphotos/Mix3r.

Fig. 2.1: Copyright © 2020 Depositphotos/scukrov.

Fig. 2.2a: Copyright © 2013 by Trent021 (CC BY-SA 3.0) at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Motorola_Power_PAK_Bag_Phone.JPG.

Fig. 2.2b: Copyright © by Rico Shen (CC BY-SA 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2007Computex_e21Forum-MartinCooper.jpg.

Fig. 2.3: Copyright © 2023 Depositphotos/prykhodov.

Fig. 2.4: Copyright © 2012 Pexels/Frans van Heerden.

IMG 2.2: Napoleon Sarony, “Nikola Tesla,” https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tesla_circa_1890.jpeg, 1980.

Fig. 2.5: Source: https://www.nofilter.media/posts/how-to-differentiate-your-business-in-a-saturated-market.

IMG 2.3: Source: https://www.bcg.com/x/the-multiplier/placing-desirability-at-center-of-innovation.