Reading 1: African Influence on American Dance

Darlene O’Cadiz

Darlene O’Cadiz, “African Influence on American Dance,” Dance and Cultural Diversity, pp. 97-117. Copyright © 2018 by Cognella, Inc. Reproduced with permission.

African Dance

The African people believed that the rhythm of life resonated deep within their spirit, and they sought to express their understanding of life through music and dance. As they were transported to different parts of the world during the slave trade, music and dance was something they carried inside them to remind them of their roots and their homeland. Europeans had enslaved Africans as early as 1441, when the Portuguese began the slave trade as an element of national commercial expansion (Redding, 1950). At the end of the sixteenth century, hundreds of thousands of Africans were kidnapped and shipped to the West Indies, particularly to the island of Hispaniola, or what is now known as Haiti (Franklin, 1969). And by the seventeenth century, the slave trade reached the North American continent.

Slavery in North America

Slaves were bought from slave dealers in Africa, both black and white, who had captured prisoners of war or abducted Africans for the sole purpose of selling them as a commodity. These captives were taken to “slave factories,” or a holding pen near the water, to wait for the arrival of ships that would carry them to the New World. The journey across the ocean could take from two to four months, and the conditions on most ships were horrible. Overcrowding in the hold, below deck, along with the stench of body odor and excrement made breathing almost unbearable. Enslaved men were shackled below deck, while the women were allowed to roam free, but they were therefore vulnerable to the sexual pressures of the sailors. There were tremendous death rates from disease, filth, and suicide (Emery, 1972). However, dancing was used on some ships as a form of exercise. Slaves who had been exercised looked healthier, and therefore could be sold for higher prices. After the morning meal, slaves were brought up from the hold and a ceremony known as “dancing the slaves” was held. The sailors would beat a drum, or play instruments such as the fiddle or the bagpipes, and the slaves were forced to dance. If they were not active enough, they would be flogged with a cat-o-nine tails. In Africa, dancing had been part of everyday life, whether it was for religious purposes or entertainment. It was seen as a way to connect with the spiritual world and to call upon the ancestors to grant favors and answer prayers. But on the passage to the Americas, it evolved into something new: it literally became a means of survival.

When the slaves arrived in America, they were sold to plantation owners and put to work in the fields. This kind of labor is what many had done in their native land, but now it was under the oppressive hand of an owner. In the early 1600s, when the slaves first arrived in what is now the United States, they were treated the same as white indentured servants. After they had served an established length of time, or had converted to Christianity, they were released. But with time, this proved to be uneconomical. In 1705, Robert Beverley published History and Present State of Virginia, where he made a distinction between servants and slaves. He stated that because slaves were black, their service should be for life, while indentured servants, who were white, should serve only a few years, according to the custom of the country (Beverley, p. 35). The Negro was to remain in official bondage for 160 years. Naturally, rebellion occurred as slaves would attempt to escape this cruel bondage and they would often kill anyone in their way. Thus, stringent laws were created to keep order. White plantation owners feared that the slaves were communicating through drumming, so drums were prohibited. But slaves learned to create rhythms using their bodies, using techniques like hand clapping and stomping the earth.

Dancing on the Plantations

Though drums were forbidden in most places, some plantations still allowed them. Some masters also allowed dances, and on occasion the masters would call upon the slaves to entertain at the Big House, or the plantation owner’s residence. The buck, pigeon wing, jig, cake-walk, ring dance, juba, quadrilles, cotillions, and reels were the popular dances on the plantations, which were performed at parties for entertainment. There were also dances that were performed for special occasions. There were seasonal dances like the corn-shucking and quilting dances, wedding and funeral dances. Dancing was also promoted in some instances because the slave owners found it would soothe the souls of the slaves. When one plantation owner was having trouble with his slaves, he provided drums and fiddles and encouraged them to dance. He found that the ill temper of the slaves disappeared and the slaves worked more efficiently and were happier overall (Emery p. 92). Even though the church tried to stop dancing, naming it a “sin,” the slaves performed sacred dances rooted in African tradition, like the ring shout and “ecstatic possession” dances.

The Buck and Wing

The Buck and Wing started out as an improvisation of stomping and shuffling steps, which were performed by the slaves to entertain at parties for the plantation owners. The idea was to get the white folks to clap, laugh, and have a good time. The more tricks and fun the dancer had, the better. The pigeon wing imitated bird movements by flapping arms and adding fancy jumps and hops along with bird-like neck movements. Together these dances developed into the buck and wing, or what we know today as time-steps, and a sliding jump, where one pushes one or both feet out to the sides, then lands together.

Jig

The Jig Dance was a competition dance, with the idea of moving the feet quickly to imitate the sounds of a snare drum. Usually the back was held straight, because often the dancers would balance a glass of water on their head while dancing, while trying to not spill even a drop. The hips, knees, and feet were very articulate, and flashy turns were performed for excitement. Slave owners would arrange jig contests with other plantations, which would usually take place in the slave’s quarters. The winner was determined by the fastest feet and the fanciest tricks.

Cake-Walk

Another contest dance that was performed was the Cake-Walk. Sometimes plantation owners just had their slaves compete against each other to see who the best cake-walk couple was.

This was also a popular dance at harvest festivals, and here slaves would compete against the slaves of other plantations. The idea was to keep the back straight and perform interesting walking patterns, while strutting and smiling, and throwing in kicks now and then. The prize was a cake, donated by the master, and most of the time it was made out of cornmeal and decorated with cabbage leaves (Emery, p. 91). The slave owners were delighted to see the slaves strutting so straight, thinking they were emulating the stature of their owner. But in actuality, the blacks were imitating and making fun of the pretentious attitudes of the whites, at their exclusive balls.

Ring Dance

In the Ring Dance, like the name suggests, the dancers formed a ring or circle while singing, clapping, shuffling their feet, and animating their whole body. This dance was done by the slaves at harvest time. It was a way to celebrate and give thanks for a good crop. It usually took place on a Saturday evening, and everyone brought something to eat to the celebration. They sang and shouted all night. Then when the sun came up, the dance began, and continued for a couple hours.

Juba

Another dance that was popular among the slaves was the Juba. This was a competition dance exhibiting a challenge among dancers. One distinct feature of the dance was called “patting juba.” The slapping of arms, chest, and thighs along with stomping and clapping appeared when the drums were prohibited. The participants would form a circle providing the rhythm with slaps, claps, and stomps. Then one person would step into the circle to show off their best moves, and were joined by another dancer to challenge the first dancer’s skills. The improvisation of movements to try to out-do one another continued until a dancer got tired or was clearly out done. Then others entered the circle to continue the challenge. All the while the outer circle of spectators patted out complex rhythms, and sang and shouted.

The most popular juba song goes:

Juba dis and juba dat;

Juba kills a yaller cat.

Juba up and juba down;

Juba runnin all around.

(Wyeth, 1914, p. 62)

The Juba is said to have survived in the song and dance called Hambone, which like the Juba, includes body-slapping rhythms.

Dancing on the plantations was not an everyday occurrence. It was reserved to reward good work and good behavior. There are many accounts of slaves’ sharing fond memories of the celebration of song and dance. These dances took place on Saturday nights because the slaves would have five and a half work days. Sometimes they would work until supper time, but after the work week was done, the dancing began. These events were called “frolics.” Some plantation owners didn’t allow frolics on their plantation but would let their slaves travel to another plantation where they were allowed. Most of the dances done at inter-plantation dances were white-influenced dances like figure dances or square dances, quadrilles, and cotillions. But sometimes there were also jigs, buck and wing, cake-walks, and juba dances.

Special Occasion Dances

The dances performed at Christmas time were the same dances that were performed throughout the year. The only difference was the tradition of giving gifts. It was a time of celebration, giving thanks unto the Christian God, whom most slaves were converted to believe in.

At corn-husking time, the slaves would often work late into the night husking the corn. Traditionally they would divide the corn into two piles and have a competition of a sort to see which group finished first. There was a captain of corn husking who sang to provide the rhythm of the work. The faster he sang, the faster the slaves husked that corn. When they finished, there was a celebration of dancing and singing. They danced the juba and the buck and wing, along with the quadrilles and cotillions. Endurance was the key component in the solo dances, because the dancer who lasted the longest was considered the winner. The slave owners encouraged this because it reflected the stamina of the work the slave could do in the field. Meanwhile, the square dances provided a time to socialize and an opportunity to look for a mate.

Wedding Dances

When a slave wanted to marry, the first thing they had to do was to get the permission of their master. Then, if he had the approval, he would take his wife to bed and that was considered the bonding act. There was not a church ceremony, but a ceremony was performed that was sometimes called “jumping the broom.” The master would hold a broomstick horizontally and the couple would jump over it, one at a time. Sometimes they would jump over it and then jump backward over it. Supposedly, if they would clear the broomstick without their feet touching it, the marriage would be good. But if the feet touched it, there was possibility of trouble or failure in the marriage.

Funeral Dances

If a slave died, usually the burial was within a day, but the funeral could be postponed until the minister was able to perform the ceremony. In America, the burial would often take place at night, with a procession of friends and relatives carrying torches and escorting the body to the grave. In the secluded Georgia Sea Islands, more of the African traditions were able to survive, and special funeral dances were performed. The friends and relatives would march to the grave beating a drum. Then, they would circle the grave and lie face down on the ground, until the corpse was placed in the grave. The drumbeat would signal the dancers to rise, fall, dance, or sing. The main purpose of the dance was to make a magic circle to surround the spirit of the deceased, and keep unwanted spirits out (Emery p. 118). It was believed that the deceased could then safely transition to the realm of the spirit world.

Sacred Dance

The sacred dances of West Africa exhibited the possession of spirit within the dancer’s body. But for the slaves to practice their traditional sacred dances, they had to disguise them within the constraints of the Protestant religion. The drums were not allowed, but the rhythm was created with the instrument of the human body. Shuffling, clapping, and singing provided the rhythmic vehicle to ecstasy, and instead of the possession of Damballa, or any of the other vodou spirits, it was the spirit of the Lord that they strived to feel and experience.

Ring Shout

In the Ring Shout, the slaves would sing their praises to the Lord in the protestant hymns, clapping out a rhythm or sometimes using a beating stick, often a broom stick or garden tool, to provide a counter rhythm as they shuffled around in a circle. Their body movements were minimal, which produced a rhythmic motion close to the core of their being, because they knew the original ecstatic movements of possession would not be acceptable to their white owners. Sometimes, they would close their eyes to be one with the spirit, and other times they would throw their hands up in the air and look to the heavens, while shuffling in the circle and clapping out polyrhythmic music. Occasionally, a dancer would lower themselves to their knees and touch their head to the floor in an effort to be cleansed of sin. The rules to distinguish it as a spiritual dance were that the feet would never cross, and could never leave the floor. According to Dr. L.D. Turner, the word “shout” actually comes from the Arabic word “saut,” pronounced “shout,” which meant to walk or run around the Kaaba or the Islamic shrine (Parrish, p. 52). The Ring Shout was a way of releasing pent-up energy and giving praise to the spirit. Still, many of the churches tried desperately to rid the people of dancing, considering it to be a sin.

Minstrel Shows

The minstrel shows began as a form of entertainment in the 1830s. White performers would wear black grease-paint makeup and imitate the Negro style of song and dance. The minstrel show followed a formula of three acts. The first part consisted of a group dance, in somewhat of a burlesque style, and included wisecracks and fun songs. The second part was a comedy routine using clever puns. The last part was a skit that included stereotypical characters such as the slave, the dandy, the mammy, and the mulatto. The performances were typically racist, but they did display a certain awareness of African American culture. After the civil war ended, black performers were hired to perform in the minstrel shows, but they were also required to wear grease-paint makeup and play the parts of the stock characters. By 1910, the art form had died out in the professional theatres, but was still used across America in amateur venues until the 1960s, when the Civil Rights Movement brought awareness to the inappropriate nature of these shows.

The inspiration for the minstrel shows started as early as the 1700s, when the slaves of the north were developing their dancing skills on the streets of New York. At Catherine Market in Manhattan, after the Negros had finished selling their products, they would gather and set down wooden planks called shingles, where they would perform so bystanders would give them money. However, Negro dancers were not permitted to perform in the legitimate theatre until the 1840s. Still, there is reference to a company of Negro actors and actresses that performed in New York City from 1821 to 1823. They were known as the African Company. Not much is known about them, but according to records, it appears that they were continually harassed by the police and radical whites, who finally destroyed their building and caused the collapse of the company (Emery, p. 180).

Thomas Dartmouth Rice was a white actor who performed an act called the Jim Crow Dance, wearing blackface, in the 1830s. This type of performance dominated the minstrel shows. The Jim Crow dance was an imitation of the Negro dances, which included the jig and a shuffle with off-balance turns and jumps. It was meant to imitate the happy, active style of dance that African Americans had developed. It was said to have been derived from the steps performed by an elderly crippled black man. A poem from “Sketches and Eccentricities of Col. David Crockett, of Tennessee” emits the essence of the style:

My old misses long time ago

She took me down de hill side to jump Jim Crow;

Fus ’pon de heel tap, den ’pon de toe,

Eb’ry Monday morning I jump Jim Crow.

Oh lord, ladies, don’t you know

You nebber get to Heben till you jump Jim Crow.

Another famous minstrel dancer was a black man named William Henry Lane. He was born a free man, but adopted the name Master Juba after the juba dance. He was an excellent jig dancer, and had the opportunity to compete against a white minstrel dancer named Master John Diamond, who took pride in his skills in the black style of dancing. A series of dance competitions began in 1844, and it was finally determined that Master Juba was to be given the title, “King of All Dancers.” In 1845, Master Juba was the first black man to join a minstrel troupe touring the United States. In 1848, he moved to London and joined a performing group called Pell’s Ethiopian Serenaders.

The blackface minstrel shows were the first indigenous American musical theatre (Jonas, p. 171). This ultimately led to the development of musical theatre, and the first musical to provide the opportunity for blacks to perform professionally on stage was “Uncle Tom’s Cabin.” It was staged in 1852, and was based on the novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe. “The Creole Show,” produced in 1889, was another musical that had an all-Negro cast, and was said to be the first major production to omit blackface makeup. It did, however, follow the traditional minstrel format, but also included sixteen chorus girls, and finished the show with a grand cake-walk.

Breaking Down Stereotypes of the Minstrel Show

In the minstrel show, the formula was set using stock characters, who displayed the racist views of the American whites. Therefore, if blacks wanted to perform in minstrel shows, they had no choice than to participate in the ridicule of their own race and culture. However, when blacks started to create their own entertainment for Vaudeville, they could reinvent their position in the theatrical tradition and break down racial stereotypes. While blacks were often portrayed as unintelligent by racist whites, the precision and the wit displayed in the Vaudeville acts expressed a clever intelligence that was apparent to any audience member with an open mind. Vaudeville showed the Negro in a different light, and helped disprove some of the common stereotypes about African Americans. It therefore can also be seen as the beginning of breaking down American racial barriers.

Tap Dancing

Tap dancing developed on the minstrel stage. It was a blend of the Irish jig, the English clog, and the African American Juba. The rhythms were expressive, and the dancing was entertaining, providing a perfect fit for vaudeville and the musical theatre genre. In the early twentieth century, Americans craved lively song and dance entertainment. Tap dancers created different steps through improvisation, and hosted challenges in an effort to dazzle the audience by out-doing each other. Tap dancers would develop new steps by listening for interesting rhythms in music and they would work to create these rhythms using stomps, shuffles, slides, taps, hops holds, and anything they could think of. Often tap dancers would gather on the streets or at taverns or clubs to display what they had created. This soon evolved into competitions or challenges. As different styles of music developed, different styles of tap dancing evolved. The hoofers were active and rhythmic, the flash act was exciting and acrobatic, the soft shoe was smooth and easy flowing, and the class act was elegant and romantic.

By the 1920s, tap dancing was all the rage. There were multitudes of tap dancers, but the best of the best could be found in New York. The most popular happening place to find excellent tap dancers was at the Hoofers Club in Harlem. The hoofer’s style was to concentrate on the percussion of tapping without other dance influences or upper body movements. It was all about the rhythm. John Bubbles and Bill Robinson were among the best, and it was said that they could really “lay down some iron.” Young, ambitious tap dancers would keenly watch the greats perform, and that is where the art of “stealing steps” was perfected. If one was clever enough to figure out those exciting moves, they could take them, add nuances, and make them their own (Frank, p. 94).

Bill “Bojangles” Robinson

Bill “Bojangles” Robinson was one of the greatest tap dancers of all time. He had the cleanest taps and could make the most complex steps look easy. He could also pull off the easy routines by using his charm and charisma to make it more entertaining. It seemed like his taps never stopped; he was always moving. He starred at the Cotton Club and in Broadway shows, Vaudeville, and Hollywood movies. Meanwhile, he also appeared in benefit performances. Sometimes, he would have a couple of gigs a day, but he loved to dance, so he was happy to be so busy and successful.

Flash Act

The Flash Act was a style of tap dance that was, as its name suggests, exciting and flashy. The style originated with the Berry Brothers. As one critic explains, “The Berry Brothers were masters of the ‘freeze and melt,’ the sparkling contrasts between posed immobility and sudden flashing action” (Frank, p. 155). Two of the brothers, Ananias and James, had started touring the church circuit in the 1920s, modeling their act after a famous group called Williams and Walker. The Berry family had migrated to Hollywood, which allowed the Berry brothers to take their place and become well-known entertainers. By the 1930s, they had hit the big time, and were performing at the Cotton Club and various New York venues. Later, after Ananias got married, Warren, the youngest brother, learned his part and continued the act with James. But Ananias’s marriage didn’t last, so the three brothers formed an act. Their act consisted of the Cakewalk Strut, a hat-and-cane routine, a bit of acrobatics, and some jokes and songs. Every movement was precisely timed in syncopated rhythm, making it a magically delightful piece of entertainment. The act can be seen in the movie, Lady Be Good from 1941.

At the Cotton Club, one of the flash acts that thrilled the audience every night was the Nicholas Brothers. They were just a couple of kids, but they danced with clarity and confidence, dazzling all with their charisma and flashy acrobatic moves, which they incorporated into their tap routine. When the Cotton Club closed, the Nicholas Brothers continued to perform on Broadway and in London shows. They also appeared in many Hollywood movies, including Down Argentine Way and Tin Pan Alley.

Soft Shoe

The Soft Shoe is a dance done in 4/4 time, which expresses an easy, flowing feeling. When it was first developed, it was done in shoes that didn’t have metal taps, and sometimes sand was sprinkled on the floor to create a special crunching sound. The idea was to make this dance look easy, by producing a fluid style and clean, precise moves. Cholly Atkins and Honi Coles were famous for their signature routine, which included a slow Soft Shoe. It was a twelve-minute act, which began with an up-tempo “get-on.” Then, they would break the tempo to half time, bring in a song, and do a jazz dance routine followed by some rhythm tap. Then, there would be another song, a couple one-line jokes and then the very slow Soft Shoe. The remarkable thing about this Soft Shoe was that it was extremely slow, requiring perfect balance, and the two men were perfectly in synch. This produced a captivating dream-like quality as they exhibited their charm and charisma to engage the audience. Finally, Honi would end with a solo, only to have Cholly slide in front at the end to take his bow.

Class Act

The style of tap-dancing known as the Class Act was, as its name suggests, a very classy and aesthetic form of entertainment. Two or sometimes three dancers would comprise the act, and would perform identical steps in perfect synchronization. In the Class Act, “Dress was impeccable and each movement a work of art” (Frank, p. 262). It was often referred to as picture dancing because each movement was said to be as “pretty as a picture,” and if one took a picture of the act, the dancers would be in the exact same position. Coles and Atkins comprised one famous Class Act, and perhaps the most famous Class Act was that of Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers.

Fred Astaire was inspired by the great tap dancer John Bubbles. He also had the influence of classical ballet, which helped him developed a tap dance style that was smooth and elegant. Fred Astaire had a successful career on Broadway as a musical comedy star but decided to move to Hollywood in 1933. It was there that he revolutionized the Hollywood movie musical. Fred Astaire and his dance partner, Ginger Rogers, became the quintessential romantic couple, performing their precision class act with a graceful style. Some of the movies they displayed their elegant tap dance style include Flying Down to Rio, Roberta, Top Hat, and Swing Time.

Cotton Club and Savoy Ballroom

The Cotton Club was one of the most popular spots in the uptown district of Manhattan, known as Harlem. The club was located on 142^nd Street and Lenox Avenue and was the undoubtedly the hottest nightclub from 1923 to 1936. As one historian explains, “If you were White, it was the place to go. If you were Black, it was the show to be in” (Frank, p. 64). The elite socialites of New York came dressed to the nines, in furs and tuxedos, and frequented the club, which came to be owned and operated by gangsters during the Prohibition Era. The Cotton Club was a club exclusively for white audiences; blacks wanting to enjoy club atmosphere instead attended the famous Savoy Ballroom.

The Savoy Ballroom opened in 1926 down the street from the Cotton Club on Lenox Avenue in Harlem. It opened during a period in time known as the Harlem Renaissance, in which the African-American consciousness began to be expressed by black artists and writers like Langston Hughes and Claude McKay. At a time of segregation between blacks and whites, the Savoy opened its doors to a completely integrated crowd. It was the place to go where people of all races were treated equally. The dancers were predominantly black, but whites who had fallen in love with the emotional expression of this movement style went to watch, learn, and experience this new phenomenon, which came to be known as swing dancing. There was no turning back after experiencing a swing out. Swing was exhilarating and practically addictive; it seemed that Savoy frequenters were always craving more. Big Bands like Chick Webb and Count Basie provided fabulous music. The dance space was a block-long ballroom with a wooden floor, which had to be replaced every three years because of the wear of constant, energetic dancing.

There was a corner of the Savoy ballroom reserved for the best dancers, called the “Cats’ Corner.” Couples would compete, challenging each other in cutting contests. Dancers would perform one couple at a time to determine the “king” of cutters, and the reigning “king” from the previous contest would perform last. Smooth, fast moves incorporating acrobatics scored more points, and so this form of improvisation led to the development of the fast-paced swing dance known as the Lindy Hop (Jonas, p. 179). It was named after Charles Lindbergh’s solo flight across the Atlantic, which was a celebrated event of the time. When a reporter asked Shorty Snowden, a top-notch dancer, what the name of this crazy dance was, he replied “The Lindy Hop,” knowing that it would catch on if it was associated with a popular event. Its name, along with the Lindy Hop movement, will forever depict that era.

Lindy Hop and Swing

The Lindy was a syncopated two-step partner dance, but the highlight was a portion of the dance called the “breakaway.” This was when the couples would break apart and perform solo improvisations, keeping time to the swing music. The main point was to dazzle the observers with new fantastic moves, and make them look effortless. Then, the couple would come back to their syncopated two-step, without missing a beat. According to Norma Miller, a regular at the Savoy, “The Beat is what swing dancing is all about. It’s perfect attunement between dance, movement, and music. Swing music. There’s never been any music so perfectly attuned to what the body can do.” In fact, some of the dancers would also improvise with soloist in the band. Lester Young, a saxophone player said, “The rhythm of the dancers comes back to you when you’re playing.” Dancer Leon James describes the improvisational interaction between the dancers and trumpet player Dizzy Gillespie: “Every time he played a crazy lick, we cut a crazy step to go with it. And he dug us and blew even crazier stuff to see if we could dance to it, a kind of game, with the musicians and dancers challenging each other” (Jonas, p. 179).

One of the bouncers at the Savoy, named Herbert White, formed a group of dancers who were there almost every night. He called the group Whitey’s Lindy Hoppers. George Shorty Snowden, Norma Miller, and Frankie Manning were among the dancers in this group. Eventually, the group was hired to do professional gigs and perform at nightclubs, and they even toured across Europe, showing off this exciting style of dancing. Whitey’s Lindy Hoppers also appeared in the Marx Brothers movie, A Day at the Races, in a crazy dance scene that exhibited their acrobatic air steps and swinging moves.

Frankie Manning was credited with being one of the creators of the air steps. These are partnered lifts, where the girls seem to fly over, under, and up into the air effortlessly. They are spectacular and exciting to watch. Frankie describes creating and practicing these moves with his partner Frieda Washington: “I would put my arms around her arms, with us back to back, and I would bend down and lift her, and at the same time she would come up off her feet and roll over my back. And she would land in front of me, facing me. And we practiced until we got it down to a point where we could do it every single time and do it on the beat of the music.” They had practiced in secret, and were finally ready to take it to the “cutting” contest in the Cats’ Corner. They were up against Shorty Snowden. Manning recalls, “The music seemed like it was just flowing with her as she flowed across my back. And when she landed, the music just hit like that, right on the beat. And I hugged her, and we did a jig walk backward off the floor. And it seemed like the whole Savoy ballroom, like they were jumping up and clapping hands and just hollering and screaming and carrying on” (Jonas).

The music was the driving force of the swing dance. Swing rhythm allows for the combination of the improvisations and intricacies of the African dance style and the couples’ dances of Europe. The Lindy Hop took flight, and by 1936, white American teenagers were doing their version, called the jitterbug. Arthur Murray, a well-known social dance teacher, who had not only franchised many dancing schools, but also had a successful mail-order dance instruction business, taught all the popular dances. To the older white American population, the African sensuality coupled with the European touching dances was considered scandalous. But there was no stopping this new movement and expression; swing dance became the fundamental dance style of the era.

Transformation to Professional Jazz Dance

By 1942, America was sending troops to fight in World War II. The men were going off to war, so this put a damper on the social dance craze. Entertainment theatres once again became the main venue for dance. Around this time, Katherine Dunham was presenting her choreography based on her anthropological studies in the West Indies, and she also developed a dance school to dignify the African dance as an art form. Many of her techniques led to the development of jazz dancing, which became a popular form of dance for both Broadway and Hollywood.

Katherine Dunham received her B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. in anthropology from the University of Chicago, and was known for her studies linking Caribbean dance to its African roots. In the 1930s, she opened a dance school and started a dance company. She encouraged African Americans to study dance as a vehicle to understanding their heritage, and in turn gain a sense of pride in their culture. Her technique was a blend of the articulate and flexible African style, combined with the discipline of ballet. The result was well-trained dancers capable of expressing incredibly raw emotion. The torso was flexible, while the pelvis, rib cage, and limbs were articulate. She developed the warm-up technique of isolations, first moving the head in every capacity while keeping every other part of the body still, then moving on to the shoulders, then the ribs, and hips, legs, and feet. The idea was to understand the movement capacity of all the different body parts, and then to coordinate them to create an expressive dance style.

Katherine Dunham used her experience and what she learned in the Caribbean to create her choreography. In January of 1938, she premiered a work based on a folk tale from Martinique called L’ag’ya. It incorporated ag’ya movement, which is a fighting dance similar to capoeria, the Brazilian martial art. The work was appealing because it had a storyline the audience could follow, and the newspapers praised it as a “fiery folk ballet.” That same year, she presented another dance called Barrel House Blues, but this dance was seen as scandalous, and John Martin, a well-known dance critic, said it was an “incredible vulgarity.” It told the simple story of a woman going to a bar and dancing very sensuously to escape her troubles for a while, but the hip movements were highly sexual, and it was not well received by the conservative audiences of the time. In 1946, her dance Shango intrigued audiences. This dance was a reenactment of a vodou ritual of possession. The movements were wild and trance-like, with undulating, spinning, and dropping to the floor. It was unlike anything seen in America at the time, and is one of her most celebrated dances.

Always an activist for human rights, Ms. Dunham wanted to bring awareness to the public by promoting equal rights to all people. She fought against segregation in hotels, theatres, restaurants, and all public places. There was one instance where she refused to sign a Hollywood contract, which stated that she would have to replace her darker skinned dancers. Even at the age of 82, she gained attention by participating in a 47-day hunger strike, which protested the

United States deportation of Haitian refugees, who were fleeing Haiti because of extreme political turmoil. Her choreography celebrated the spirit of the African heritage, and her pioneering efforts inspired jazz dancers and modern dancers of all races.

Rock and Roll

Inspired by the rhythm and blues music of Black America, rock and roll emerged in the 1950s. White American teenagers were loving it. While swing dance continued to be performed to rock and roll music, it was danced without the breakaway improvisations popular in the Lindy Hop. Singers like Elvis Presley livened up country music, using rhythmic vocal phrasing copied from African-American performers. He even admitted that he had to move when he sang. According to him, a force deep within his core just had to gyrate. In the 50s, even radio stations were segregated; there were stations that played white-only music and stations that played black-only music. The audiences were supposed to be segregated as well, but in the late 50s white teenagers started tuning into the black stations to listen to the tunes of artists like Fats Domino, James Brown, and Little Richard. It was the youth that recognized these African-American artists’ talent and worth. They were able to express emotion experienced by that generation through music and dance, and it felt good.

In the 1960s, dance styles took a turn, partners broke away from each other to twist, shake, do the monkey, and find individual expression on the dance floor. The improvisation in the Lindy breakaway became its own separate form of expression. The African animal dances of the early 1900s inspired movement styles in this period, and evolved into a new style for this new generation. Some of the songs even had lyrics giving explicit directions of how to move the body to successfully do the dance. For instance the Bunny Hop and the Locomotion were popular dances that gave instructions in the lyrics of the songs. Anti–rock and roll fanatics, typically older white Americans, were worried about the “white youth” being corrupted by “African sensuality,” but many changes were shaping the cultural attitudes of the Americans, and this was reflected on the dance floor. In 1959, the birth control pill was put on the market, and the sexual revolution began. Meanwhile, the Civil Rights issues were looked at seriously, and for most Americans, equal rights for all individuals made sense. Still, the fight against the conservative establishment required constant effort, and a solidarity among young people who wanted to change the country for the better.

Motown

In the 1960s, Berry Gordy created a record label with the unique sound of soul and rhythm and blues. He contracted artists like Diana Ross and the Supremes, Smoky Robinson and the Miracles, the Four Tops, and the Jackson 5 to record their music. When these artists would perform, they would incorporate a little dance routine to accompany the songs. One of the leading innovators and choreographers was Cholly Atkins. Using his experience of rhythm tap and show dancing, Cholly created synchronized moves that the singers would do to express the concept of the song and liven up the performance.

Break Dancing

Starting in the 1970s, improvisational dancing was back on the streets in Brooklyn. The African American and Latino youth developed their own unique style of dance, and were called B-boys and B-girls, short for “break” boys and girls. Kool Herc was a DJ who would throw parties at the community center of 1520 Sedgewick Avenue in the Bronx. He would play music with a strong beat, and noticed that the dancers would wait for the break where the vocals dropped out, the climactic percussive sections in the songs, to start shooting their moves. So he used his disk jockey skills to extend those parts of the music. The parties got to be so popular that he had to move them out into the street. Cedar Park became the place to “jam,” or develop break dancing skills and moves. Although some viewed the dancing as disturbing the peace, breaking was a positive form of recreation among the crime-infested streets of the ghetto. The idea was to invest time into developing one’s skill and get high on the physical exhilaration and the success of slamming a killer move. The B-boys thus earned a certain respect in the hood.

The original B-boys included Eldorado Mike, Clark Kent, The Inga Twins, SaSa James Bond, Timmy Tim, and Cadillac Mel. They had gotten their inspiration from the “hoofers’ challenge” and the Lindy Hoppers’ “breakaway.” In the mid-70s, crews began to form. These crews got together regularly to practice moves, invent new moves, and develop a distinct style. Some of the original crews were the Zulu Kings, KC Crew, Commanders, Seven Deadly Sins, and the Bronx Boys. In 1977, the crew Rock Steady was formed because Jimmy Dee, Jimmy Lee, and JoJo, the founding members of this crew, noticed that the originals were dying out, and they wanted to keep break dancing going, or in their words, keep the “rock” steady. To keep the skills developing, crews would compete against each other, or “battle,” and this led to the invention of power moves, like the windmill or continuous back spin, created by Crazy Legs, and the continuous head spin, created by Kid Freeze. At the end of each dancer’s set comes the “freeze.” This is a pose “often designed to inflict maximum humiliation. The most popular of these was the crotch grab, but others spun into positions of ostentatious languor, as if demonstrating what little effort it took to dispose of their rivals” (Tanz, 2007, p. 48). On the West Coast, break-dancers developed popping, or the isolation and articulation of movements of the body using a sharp contracts and releases. Popping consisted of hitting a move to the synchronized beat of the music, and locking was a longer pause or quick-freeze. The robot was also a popular style that developed during that time period.

In the early 1980s, break dancing began to get media attention. Martha Cooper photographed kids in the subway who were “rocking.” Meanwhile, Tony Silver and Henry Chalfant filmed a documentary called Style Wars, about the New York graffiti legends, and included the involvement of the b-boys in that scene.

Television media brought further attention to break dancing when ABC News broadcast a battle between Rock Steady and Dynamic Rockers at Lincoln Center. Then, Rock Steady displayed their moves in the movie Flashdance, which inspired kids all over the U.S. to form crews of their own. In the Olympic closing ceremonies in 1984, break dancing reached its biggest audience ever. Soon the best crews were touring the world, inspiring kids everywhere to dance.

Music Videos

MTV started out with clips of live concerts of predominantly white rock bands. Then, it started to transform, as the power of the visual image became apparent and the concept of the song could be expressed in dance scenes, along with the song. Michael Jackson was one of the first to recognize the potential of the music video. In 1983, Michael hired director Bob Giraldi and choreographer Michael Peters to create a mini-movie for his music video “Beat It.” The story of the inner-city gang members about to fight with their knives drawn as Jackson breaks through and gets them to dance instead, helped encapsulate the message of this popular Jackson track. Michael Jackson had already been using hip-hop dancers in his stage shows, but with the success of his first music video, he paved the way for black and white musical artists to use dancers to further express the ideas behind their songs. And it soon became apparent that music videos that incorporated dance were the most popular.

With the music video phenomenon reaching an all-time high, pop rockers not only had to know how to sing, but dancing and acting became necessary skills as well. Madonna, MC Hammer, Usher, Britney Spears, and Beyoncé, along with the Boy Bands of the 1990s and early 2000s, all used dance to express the emotional quality of their songs. Paula Abdul, on the other hand, was a dancer and choreographer initially, but was able to launch her singing career backed by cool dance videos.

Hip-Hop

Hip-hop is the style of music and dance that dominates the most modern music videos. Sometimes, it is mixed with a jazz dance influence, but the African sensuality is apparent. Whether it is a sexy undulating quality, a sharp percussive attack, or dazzling tricks and flips, it reflects the attitudes of the generation it stems from, who is aware of their sexuality and open to expressing it. Not all ideas expressed in hip-hop are positive. Some degrade women and some promote violence, but the presentation of hip-hop music and dance breeds awareness, and the controversy it can cause also can help open up discussions about these often-taboo topics. Thus it has the potential to lead to a more educated population and safer, more comfortable lifestyle for all people.

Summary

In Africa, dance was a part of everyday life, from stylizing the repetitive motion of manual labor, to the displays of sensuous movement to attract a mate, and finally to the ability to feel spiritual presence and commune with the gods. As the Africans were transported to North America during the slave trade, they were forced to leave behind their way of life and conform to a new way of existing. But the music and dance resided deep within them, and they were able to emerge and influence the art of dance in America.

On the journey to the Americas, the slaves were forced to dance for health purposes and it is possible that the activity provided an escape to a different state of mind, causing them to recognize the value of dance to soothe the soul. On the plantations the owners realized the rewards of feasts and dances for the slaves. These celebrations would produce better workers and provide entertainment for the owners. As slavery was abolished the talented African Americans would make a living by singing and dancing. The art of improvising and the challenge that began on the plantations continued into the tap-dance era and the break-dancing scene. The social dances exuded with sensuality and provided freedom of expression for the youth in America. Ultimately, the love of dance as a means of expression broke down racial barriers, contributing to the success of the Civil Rights movement.

Works Cited

Beverley, R. (1705). The history and present state of Virginia, in four parts. London, England: R. Parker.

Emery, L. F. (1972). Black dance from 1619 to today. Windsor, NJ: Princeton Book Company.

Frank, R. (1994). Tap: The greatest tap dance stars and their stories 1900–1955. New York: Da Capo Press.

Franklin, J. H. (1969). From slavery to freedom: A history of Negro Americans. New York, NY: Random House.

Israel (Director), QD3 Entertainment, & Brotherhood Films (Producers). (2002). The freshest kids: A history of the b-boy [Video]. Distributed by Image Entertainment.

Jonas, G. (1998). Dancing: The pleasure, power and art of moving. New York, NY: Harry N. Abrams.

Katherine Dunham. (1996). In J. Salzman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of African-American culture and history. New York, NY: Macmillan. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wnet/freetodance/biographies/dunham.html

Parrish, L. (1942). Slave songs of the Georgia Sea Islands. New York, NY: Creative Age Press.

Redding, S. (1950). They came in chains. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott.

Tanz, J. (2007). Other people’s property: A shadow history of hip-hop in white America. New York, NY: Bloomsbury.

Wyeth, J. A. (1914). With sabre and scalpel. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers.

Image Credits

• Fig. 1.1: Copyright © Alexander Zabara (CC BY 2.0) at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hiphoplight.jpg
• Fig. 1.2: Source: http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/var1994001704/PP/
• Fig. 1.3: “Winter Holidays in the Southern States (Plantation Frolic on Christmas Eve),” Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, pp. 64, 1857
• Fig. 1.4: Source: http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2004663520/
• Fig. 1.5: Source: http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/fsa2000033025/PP/
• Fig. 1.6: Source: http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2004672527/
• Fig. 1.7: Copyright © E. Başak (CC BY-SA 2.0) at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:B-boy_breakdancing.jpg